Key Points – Poland’s PT-91 Twardy, developed in the 1990s, is a comprehensive modernization of the Soviet-era T-72 main battle tank, designed to enhance its capabilities.
-Key Polish upgrades include ERAWA explosive reactive armor for improved protection, the Drawa fire control system incorporating a laser rangefinder and thermal imaging for better accuracy (including fire-on-the-move), and more powerful engines (850-1000hp) boosting mobility.
PT-91 tank from Poland heading to Ukraine. Image Credit: Creative Commons.
-While retaining the original 125mm gun, these enhancements made the Twardy a significantly more effective MBT. The PT-91 served as Poland’s primary tank before Western acquisitions and has since been extensively supplied to Ukraine.
The PT-91 Twardy Tank Is a Special Version of the T-72
During Poland’s time in the Warsaw Pact, Poland acquired and domestically produced T-72 tanks. After the USSR collapsed, Poland found itself with a large number of outdated Soviet tanks. Rather than get rid of its old tanks to buy new ones, the Poles opted to modernize and upgrade their fleet of tanks.
Thus, in the 1990s, the PT-91 Twardy was born. The Twardy includes several upgrades over its soviet ancestors, including better fire control systems, increased mobility, and better protection.
From T-72 to PT-91
The T-72, initially introduced by the Soviet Union in the 1970s, was a rugged but cost-effective tank that became the backbone of Warsaw Pact tank fleets. Poland had produced the T-72M and T-72M1 under license, but by the 1980s, these tanks were increasingly outclassed by NATO counterparts in terms of firepower, protection, and electronics. Realizing this gap, Polish engineers at OBRUM (Research and Development Centre for Mechanical Appliances) and Bumar-Łabędy initiated a modernization program that would eventually result in the PT-91.
Better Armor and Electronics
One of the most critical areas of improvement was armor protection. The PT-91 was equipped with ERAWA explosive reactive armor, developed by Poland’s Military Institute of Armament Technology. This armor came in two variants: ERAWA-1, which was designed to counter high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) rounds, and ERAWA-2, which also offered protection against kinetic energy penetrators.
Unlike the Soviet Kontakt-1 ERA, ERAWA blocks were non-metallic and modular, allowing for easier maintenance and replacement. The tank also featured improved side skirts and additional steel plating, enhancing its survivability on the battlefield.
Another major upgrade was the fire control system. The PT-91 introduced the Drawa fire control system, a substantial improvement from the basic optics and targeting systems of the base T-72. The Drawa system included a laser rangefinder, dual-axis gun stabilization, a ballistic computer, and, in later variants, thermal imaging sights. These enhancements allowed the PT-91 to engage targets more accurately while on the move and in low-visibility conditions—capabilities sorely lacking in the original T-72 design.
Regarding electronics and communication, the PT-91 replaced outdated Soviet systems with modern, domestically produced radios and intercoms—this improved battlefield coordination and command efficiency. The tank was also equipped with laser warning receivers and smoke grenade launchers, providing a degree of active protection against incoming threats.
Increased Firepower and Mobility
While the PT-91 retained the 125 mm 2A46 smoothbore gun of the T-72, the stabilization and fire control improvements significantly increased its effectiveness. The autoloader system, a mainstay of Soviet tank design, was also slightly upgraded for better reliability and safety. Although the gun remained unchanged, the tank’s ability to use modern ammunition more effectively gave it a notable edge over its predecessor.
Mobility was another area where the PT-91 saw substantial improvements. The original engine of the T-72M1 was replaced with the PZL-Wola S-12U, a 12-cylinder diesel engine producing 850 horsepower. Poland later upgraded to a 1,000-horsepower engine in the PT-91M variant.
These changes improved the tank’s power-to-weight ratio and overall agility. The PT-91 could reach up to 60 kilometers per hour and had an operational range of 650 to 700 kilometers with external fuel tanks. The transmission system was also upgraded for better handling, and the PT-91M variant featured a RENK automatic transmission, further enhancing its drivability.
Variants and Exports
The PT-91 also saw many other upgrades throughout its life. Several variants were developed, including the PT-91A and PT-91MA1, which were upgraded versions of the T-72M and T-72M1 brought up to PT-91 standards. The most advanced version, the PT-91M “Pendekar,” was developed for export to Malaysia.
This variant featured a 1,000-horsepower engine, RENK ESM-350M automatic transmission, French SAVAN-15 fire control system, Thales thermal sights, and Western-standard machine guns. Poland was able to tinker with and tailor the PT-91 to the specific needs of its customers. This versatility allowed Poland to gain some recognition as an arms exporter.
The PT-91 served as Poland’s primary battle tank until the country began acquiring Leopard 2 tanks from Germany and other Western MBTs. Poland plans to gradually phase out the Twardy in favor of the South Korean K2 Black Panther.
PT-91. Image Credit: Creative Commons.
However, the PT-91 remains in service and has been transferred significantly to Ukraine following Russia’s 2022 invasion. The PT-91 has served Ukraine well due to Ukraine’s familiarness with Soviet tanks; the Twardy was able to slot right into the Ukrainian army without significant logistical challenges.
Despite its many improvements, the PT-91 is not without limitations. The tank is ultimately still a T-72 and shares many of the T-72’s issues. Crew protection remains a concern, particularly due to the autoloader design, which stores ammunition in the crew compartment.
While the ERAWA armor provides enhanced protection, it is insufficient against the most advanced armor-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot (APFSDS) rounds fired from NATO-standard 120 mm guns.
About the Author
Isaac Seitz, a 19FortyFive Defense Columnist, graduated from Patrick Henry College’s Strategic Intelligence and National Security program. He has also studied Russian at Middlebury Language Schools and has worked as an intelligence Analyst in the private sector.
