To Launch an Airplane from a US Navy Aircraft Carrier: Steam or Electromagnetic Energy? “Fighting the last war” is a charge often levied at our armed services. There are reasons for that. The main culprit is “doctrine”, a structured response to a perceived set of problems.
Why Doctrine Matters—Until It Doesn’t
Doctrine is necessary across large, complex organizations. Without doctrine – and training in the actions anticipated by doctrine – the most likely responses are to debate and do nothing or to deteriorate to primitive, reactive chaos.
When required responses are within the problem set anticipated with doctrinal responses, the challenge is recognizing the problem and executing the response.
When required responses fall outside the problem set anticipated by doctrinal responses, one or more elements (training, organization, command, equipment, procedures) must be modified through improvisation, usually very quickly.
When established doctrine precludes questions, it becomes outdated and often fatal. Adherence to the aggressive maneuver doctrine by the French in WWI resulted in casualties of 60 percent of the army and 35 percent of the population.
Our doctrine for aircraft carrier operations with steam catapults is well established and resistant to challenge. Our challenge is that the problem set that steam catapults solved has changed. Changes now come at an ever-increasing pace. Today’s aircraft carriers routinely remain in service for 40-50 years. Launch and recovery capabilities must accommodate and leverage new technologies in flying machines while operating under fire. The launch and recovery systems must keep pace.
ATLANTIC OCEAN. (Aug. 24, 2024) The Nimitz-class aircraft carriers USS Harry S. Truman (CVN 75), back, and the world’s largest aircraft carrier, USS Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78), sail in formation in the Atlantic Ocean, Aug. 24, 2024. USS Gerald R. Ford is the flagship of the Gerald R. Ford Carrier Strike Group. The aircraft carrier is underway in the Atlantic Ocean to further develop core unit capabilities and skills such as fuels certification and ammunition on-load during its basic phase of the optimized fleet response plan. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Maxwell Orlosky).
Yesterday’s systems are no longer suited to today’s challenges, and certainly not to tomorrow’s.
From Gunpowder to Steam
We have been through this launch method search before.
Our first attempts at launching from ships involved gunpowder. It had its drawbacks. Ships’ captains and crews typically loathe adding more flammable material to their ships. Explosive material was not at all welcome. Another disadvantage was that the immediate acceleration of the literally “explosive” launch put damaging pressure on both the airframe and the human pilot’s frame.
Steam catapults came next. Inspired by British designs, the U.S. Navy began using steam catapults for launching aircraft after WW II, significantly enhancing the operational capabilities of aircraft carriers. Successful deployment of this technology allowed heavier jets – with greater capability – to be launched efficiently from carriers. Lighter, shorter-legged aircraft, often propeller-driven, faded quickly, but not quietly. Dated doctrine hung on.
The larger Forrestal-class carriers were specifically designed to operate jet aircraft, incorporating steam catapults and angled flight decks.
The Era of Power and Mass
Our airplanes gained size and weight to exploit the launch technology. The 1950s in the U.S. were an era dominated by power and mass production. Size mattered. We had the Chevy 409, the Pontiac GTO, the Corvette 427, and the powerful Phantom II fighter-attack aircraft. More power was the answer to any question.
We built more “super carriers”. We also introduced the first nuclear submarines. Carrier aviation fielded the A-3 Skywarrior, a large (by carrier standards) two-engine airplane specifically built to provide a seaborne nuclear attack capability. It served in many roles from the mid-1950s forward, withdrawn from use only in 1991. Throughout its service, the Skywarrior was the heaviest operational aircraft to operate from an aircraft carrier, which contributed to its nickname “Whale”.
The Ford-class aircraft carrier USS Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78) and the Italian aircraft carrier ITS Cavour (CVH 550) transit the Atlantic Ocean March 20, 2021, marking the first time a Ford-class and Italian carrier have operated together underway. As part of the Italian Navy’s Ready for Operations (RFO) campaign for its flagship, Cavour is conducting sea trials in coordination with the F-35 Lightning II Joint Program Office’s Patuxent River Integrated Test Force to obtain official certification to safely operate the F-35B. Gerald R. Ford is conducting integrated carrier strike group operations during independent steaming event 17 as part of her post-delivery test and trials phase of operations.
The Hidden Costs of Steam
Steam catapults have been the U.S. Navy’s standard for decades, but they are not without significant drawbacks. The systems are complex and manpower intensive. Seals, valves, and piping require a dedicated workforce. The launch system was designed to launch the heaviest aircraft, like the A-3 Skywarrior Whale. It had difficulties launching lighter aircraft without serious risk.
Individual steam launches consume a large amount of steam and water produced on board, increasing the ship’s logistical challenges. The necessary large cylinders and accumulators occupy a significant amount of deck and hangar space, limiting the number of aircraft the ship can carry and support. Any complex system that involves managing incompatible elements (steam, pressure, metal, etc.) is inherently maintenance-intensive. The unavoidable powerful jolt at the inception of launch, while less than that of the gunpowder launches of yore, makes the aircrew and any passengers helpless hostages pinned to seats until after clearing the deck. It also stresses the airframe and shortens its service life.
Seeds of Change We Almost Missed
The 50s era and beyond also sowed seeds of change amid our focus on power and size that escaped widespread notice. In 1956 Nikita Khrushchev said, “we will bury you”. We noticed that but missed the interesting fact that in 1956, white-collar and service workers exceeded blue-collar workers in the United States for the first time. In the next year, the USSR launched Sputnik, assigning many of us of a certain age to science and engineering courses and curriculum because “we had to catch up”. “Missile gap” became a thing and affected elections. Jack Kennedy exploited this alleged gap. Defense realized increased budgets.
(April 8, 2017) — Logistics Specialist 3rd Class Miguel Monduy, from Miami, Florida, and Aviation Ordnanceman Airman Michael Valdez, from Pheonix, Arizona, assigned to Pre-Commissioning Unit Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78), stand on the flight deck for shifting colors. The future USS Gerald R. Ford (CVN 78) is underway on its own power for the first time. The first-of-class ship — the first new U.S. aircraft carrier design in 40 years — will spend several days conducting builder’s sea trials, a comprehensive test of many of the ship’s key systems and technologies. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist Seaman Gitte Schirrmacher)
In the 50s, computers were new, novel, mysterious, and suspicious. They even used stacks of paper cards that would cycle through the machine. Slide rules were in vogue, as were typewriters. Schools even taught “typing” and something called “shorthand”. Business could not survive without these skills. We adapted and now carry in our hands remarkable “computing power” considered fantastical in the early space age. Now we all “type” without stenographers and bless or curse spellcheck. But we did not allow established doctrine to stymie progress in those days. We developed new doctrine.
The Lessons of Ukraine and Iran
Today we see clear examples of change wrought by advances in warfighting technology in Ukraine – and Iran.
“Change” is continuous and constant. Pervasive all-domain surveillance, uncrewed systems, precision at distance, real-time algorithmic modifications by “geeks” in the rear talking directly to operators of uncrewed systems in contact with the enemy. We see impressive production runs. Ukraine vastly increased its drone production while under fire. Ukraine is on track to produce 8 million drones this year, while still under fire.
Russian Molniya Drone. Screenshot from Russian Military Video.
Constant modifications of fielded weapons and other factors determine winners and losers. Collaborative Combat Aircraft now in development are likely only part of the first wave populated by an ever-increasing variety of uncrewed systems. We will need to launch and recover these aircraft of many types with the high precision and speed available only with modern technology. Software dominates hardware.
Other Nations Have Noticed
Other nations have noticed. China adopted the electromagnetic launch system for their newest aircraft carrier and its amphibious ship the Sichuan. This is a first for an amphibious assault ship. The Indian Navy is also on this track. More ships from more nations will surely follow. Chinese fighter and attack aircraft will gain from the availability of many platforms other than the “big decks”. That promises more aircraft being launched and recovered faster, a wider operational area, and an increasing sortie rate.
The Problem Set Has Moved
On current trends, our operational ships and our ships in the builders’ yards, the carrier decks and newer amphibious ships of the future, are likely to see an ever-increasing variety of crewed and uncrewed aircraft. Launch and recovery systems will have to adapt to significant changes from one aircraft to another, and within a single aircraft type, at a launch-by-launch pace.
A MH-60S Seahawk helicopter assigned to the “Nightdippers” of Helicopter Sea Combat Squadron (HSC) 5 delivers cargo to the Nimitz-class aircraft carrier USS George H.W. Bush (CVN-77) during a vertical replenishment in the Atlantic Ocean, Feb. 15, 2026. The George H.W. Bush Carrier Strike Group is at sea training as an integrated warfighting team. Composite Training Unit Exercise (COMPTUEX) is the Joint Force’s most complex integrated training event and prepares naval task forces for sustained high-end Joint and combined combat. Integrated naval training provides combatant commanders and America’s civilian leaders highly capable forces that deter adversaries, underpin American security and economic prosperity, and reassure Allies and partners. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Mitchell Mason)
From a campaign perspective, carriers will not – and cannot- be the only aviation platform. Crewed and uncrewed systems will likely operate from short expeditionary sites, movable as needed, and ashore, assisted by modern electromagnetic catapult launch and arrested recovery systems. The First Island Chain is well suited for such operations. Once we fully appreciate the potential of change, we can dominate.
The problem set moved. We need modern, adaptable systems to meet the new problem set, now and for the next 50 years.
About the Author: Lieutenant General (Retired) Wallace “Chip” Gregson
Lieutenant General Wallace “Chip” Gregson joined The Roosevelt Group as a Senior Advisor after over 30 years of service in the U.S. Marine Corps. Prior to retirement, Chip served as the Assistant Secretary of Defense, Asian and Pacific Security Affairs. He also served as Commanding General of Marine Corps Forces Pacific and Marine Corps Forces Central Command, where he led and managed over 70,000 Marines and Sailors in the Middle East, Afghanistan, East Africa, Asia and the United States. From 2001 to 2003 he served as Commanding General of III Marine Expeditionary Force in Japan. He received the Japanese Order of the Rising Sun – Gold and Silver Star, the Korean Order of National Security Merit Gukseon Medal, and the Republic of China Order of the Resplendent Banner with Yellow Sash for his active duty service in Asia. Just prior to his service in Japan he was Director of Asia-Pacific Policy in the Office of the Secretary of Defense from 1998 to 2000. A combat veteran of the Vietnam conflict, he earned the Bronze Star with Combat “V” device for valor and heroism, and the Purple Heart.
